Philosophy Articles   

One of the expanded dogmas of mankind is that the Quran is quoted or borrowed from the Bible. This creed is established upon studies of many prejudiced intellectual scholars
In this series of articles (1-13), it is obvious that the Quran is quite different from the Bible. It is also very clear that the Noble Quran preceded the sciences in many aspects while the Bible contradicts with the sciences.
In the present topic of Iron, one may ask this: Is the Quran quoted from the Bible? The Bible which talks about: 1) Total destruction of a whole city and killing of all the creatures but saving the gold and Iron, 2) Breaking down of many nations into pieces, 3) Sharp sword which will strike down the nations; and He will rule them with an Iron scepter and 4) the Iron creature(s) which has Iron -neck, Iron -teeth, Iron -limbs, or made totally of Iron.
Or the Quran which is the first book on Earth saying that the Iron has come down from the space and preceded the new discovery of "Nova and Supernova".

In the process of trying to become something, you lose sight of your true nature, of who you really are. In the process of being spiritual you move away from spirit. You are your true self when you are...

What is it? Where does it come from? Well I will tell you --- it is that realization in that spot of your head that lights up like a banner - that calm all knowing feeling - that voice inside all of us.

Why love is a many-splendoured thing, a miracle and blessing...

Environmental problems in Africa
The environmental problems seem to be key challenges of the XXIst century. In the previous years the world politics and every person in general was occupied with politics and wars. But with the development of new technologies, with the increasing number of plants and factories all kind of manufacturing in general, a huge shift was made towards the environmental issues. The terrestrial, freshwater and marine environments have declined in virtually all aspects. New developments in industry and manufacturing were root causes of environmental degradation over the past three decades. The rapid growth of population, urbanization and globalization are the driving force of the environmental problems. However, the challenge is extremely high not only for the well-developed regions, but in poor parts of the world as well. Such environmental problems as land degradation, deforestation, declining of marine resources and water scarcity of deteriorating of water and air quality are on the priority list in Africa. Despite, Africa possesses wealthy natural resources many Africans live in poverty unable to benefit from the African wealth because of uneven distribution across the continent and partly because of African complicated history over the past 50 years after the decolonization.
Africa has a vast majority of poor states and regions, and poverty is a major reason and consequence of the environmental degradation. The present paper ascertains the small research on the environmental issues in Africa. In the work I will analyze one Africa region, demonstrating its problems in the environment. At the end I will point out the root cause of these problems and suggest possible ways out, if there are any.
In general a vast majority of countries in Africa depend more on their natural resource base for economic and social needs than any other region in the world. Thus, two-thirds of sub-Saharan Africa's people live in rural areas and rely on agriculture and other natural resources for income. Sub-Saharan states of Africa are right the countries, where environmental problems are first on the agenda. The environmental problems have already waited a long time for their turn. Among them there are air and water pollution, inefficient use of natural resources, oil spills and so on. Environmental problems of sub-Saharan Africa also include air and water pollution, deforestation, loss of soil and soil fertility, and a dramatic decline in biodiversity throughout the region. nest paragraphs will face the problems in more details.
It is quite understandable that the environmental problems in Sub-Sahar region are crucial and severe. The most compelling problem in Sub-Saharan Africa is that it has one of the world's fastest growing populations (approximately 2.2% a year). With the fast grow of the population the environmental challenge increase. By the year 2025 according to some estimation, the population of the African people will be over a billion. This means that the environmental challenges will definitely double or triple. Some literature indicate that Sub-African countries managed to perform more effective economic policies, which influenced the development in the region in general, but GDP growth has stagnated recently and it is obvious that with the stagnation of the economics will cause decrease in the solution of the ecological challenges.
Poverty also is the main factor that influences the development of the environmental issues. And it also exists in Sub-Sahar region, despite the region is not that poor in the comparison with other regions in Africa and in spite of the wealth natural resources. In general the problems in sub-Sahar and in Africa in common was addressed during the World Summit on sustainable Development (WSSD) which was help in South Africa in August 2002. Basically, the material of the summit points out main environmental problems and challenges. The key issues which dominate African environmental problems were addressed during the summit. They include:
1. Water pollution and sanitation. First of all water pollution is caused by oil transmission n ship ports, water resources poor management, lack of financial resources required for sustainable development and efficient utilization of resources, absence of effective regional and basin development plans and shared management, and under-estimation of the groundwater potential to supplement irrigation and drinking water supplies. Thus, Africa's freshwater problems are acute and worsening. Freshwater shortage is the two greatest limits to development in Africa;
2. Energy. Energy consumption in sub-Saharan Africa varies dramatically and dominates fuel consumption. According to reports the use of wood for fuel is predominant in both rural and urban locations and accounts for approximately 70% of total energy use. This cause another problem – deforestation. In Sub-Sahara region Nigeria consistently leads to commercial energy consumption. Thus, according to data in 2001, Nigeria consumed 0.92 quadrillion Btu (quads), 32% of all energy consumed in the region. Although domestic demand for energy consumption in sub-Saharan Africa is growing rapidly, consumption levels remain well below world averages. I would like to mention but few words about deforestation. Africa is home to one of the world's largest rain forests. It is obvious that rain forests are lungs of the Earth and their reduction cause air pollution. They protect and stabilize soils, recycle nutrients and regulate the quality and flow of water. Deforestation is one of the most pressing environmental problems not only in Africa but in other parts of the world and has negative implications for the local and global environment. Forests cover about 22 per cent of the region, but they are disappearing faster than anywhere else in the developing world. During the 1980s Africa lost 10.5 per cent of its forests. Thus, African forests are shrinking as a result of deforestation;
3. Deforestation causes another problem - biodiversity. The richness of African biodiversity requires greater protection and a sustainable use that will ensure the income of those who depend on it. There is a need to maximize biodiversity landscape protection, to give priority to biodiversity areas close to areas of high population density, and to give balanced attention to such regions as the arid and semi-arid areas.
4. Oil pollution. Oil pollution is one of the issues that must be specified being a controversial subject of heated discussion among the representatives of the academia. In a number of countries such as Nigeria and Angola, fore example, oil is the principle source of benefits. However it is pretty clear that new technologies used in oil exploration are extremely harmful for the environment. Environmental problems are common and rise heated debates. On the one hand, it expands relations among states, diversify trade relations, bring benefits. But, on the other hand, the benefits from oil are not fairly distributed among the population. The revenues from oil mainly belong to some local government communities or certain groups of interest. But the commons of Sub-Sahara have to face the oil-related problems.
5 Agriculture. Increased food insecurity resulting from rapid population growth, degradation of agriculture and arable lands, and mismanagement of available water resources combined with poor economic policies to support food production. Land degradation is also a serious environmental problem. However, Africa owns vast areas of unexploited arable land which could be exploited in the future through the integrated management of land, water and human resources.
After the Summit was held sub-Saharan Africa many problems were clear. To summarize, the address of environmental issues first of all lie in environmental awareness. But what was done to address the challenges? First, many problems in this region received more attention than in past and The United States pledged $4.5 billion over the next three years to combat HIV/AIDS and improve access to safe water. Many projects were launched by international organizations and NGOs in order to promote forest conservation. European Union was also involved in the process of combating the issues and helped in brining water and sanitation services. These events were helpful but did not solve the whole spectrum of problems. Moreover, it is clear that external participation is not obviously enough in addressing complicated problems. It is understandable that local governments have to work hard on the solving. The environmental problems that were addressed in the paper are not unique and can be found in many regions of our planet, especially where poverty flourish. But not only poverty is the decisive factor in pollution. Russia, for example is the state which suffers from the water and air pollution caused by nuclear developments. The problem was not resolved completely as Russia does not want to cease the development of nuclear infrastructure, but it was addressed at least party. It is important to notice that a vast majority of states face environmental issues and problems, they may vary from region to region, but in general almost every region on this planet where urbanization or globalization takes place is a subject to environmental problems. Moreover, environmental issues may vary from one region to another, but still may have an impact upon different sphere of economics or social spheres. To cap it all the environmental issues need regular monitoring, assessments and public reports of the state.
Water pollution is one of the examples of growing global awareness and efforts made to combat the issue. It must be noticed that the environmental impacts associated with oil exploration and development was the controversy surrounding the World Bank's approval of the Chad-Cameroon Pipeline Project in June 2000.
Thus, the summit, which was held on Sub-Sahar issue draw the attention of a number of developing states and the world hegemony the United States as well as regional or international organizations. The awareness of the problems made these entities to collaborate on the issue. The increase of problems awareness influenced also the attention of local governments. But it is clear that some states of Africa because of their poverty undoubtedly need the interference of stronger states in the resolution of the problems. It was stated at the beginning of the paper that environmental problems are rather new and some of them are not more that 10 or 20 year old. To most extent they were caused by globalization and urbanization. Thus, is they are caused by global inadequate levels of population grow and demands for more water and oil, then the burden of their resolution is also global. It is true that the increase in environmental awareness made people more persistent in the demands toward local governments. But the forceful demands are not enough, as significant regions in Africa are poor and suffer from poverty issue. This means that it is important to increase environmental awareness within the general public, but because of poverty it can not lead sometimes to strong and necessary changes. Hence, the key challenge for Sub-African region is to reduce poverty. New approaches must be found and it is important to organize investment climate. Establishing a positive investment climate in Africa is increasingly important to face the environmental problems in the regions, which are only involved in oil production.
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Society has entered to the Era of Technology and Communication, and this technological development has changed the social landscape of society. The great layer of information and varieties of technology become available now, and such gadgets like cell phones become affordable for a wide audience including a teenage group. Today, it is difficult to imagine a modern teenager without a cell phone in spite of the fact that a cell phone is not a harmless toy as it seems to be.
Statement. A cell phone becomes an addition for millions of teenagers around the globe, and its use by this age group has many disadvantages with short-term and long-term consequences.
Cell phones have a negative impact on health including radiation impact namely electromagnetic-radiation source held so near the brain. The research has found that a cell phone technology hurts teenagers worse than adults. "What the horrified researchers saw on their monitors was deep penetration of cell phone microwave radiation into soft brain tissue. Even worse, the resulting disruptions of the electrochemical synapses engaged in thought and learning persisted long after the phone was turned off" (Put This In Your Ear And Light It, 2005). Although the small amount of energy from a cell phone has been reported to generate stress responses in animals' cells and affect reflexes.
The use of a cell phone can resulted in a stress caused by a phone theft or damage. This can lead to an incredible amount of stress, most of which is totally unnecessary. The stress is also added by the need to have the latest model of a cell phone such as with camera or mp3, etc. It is important to note that cell phones as any other technology means constant change, which results in high levels of stress from adapting to these changes. Our primitive mechanisms for adjusting to change are often over-whelmed by the innovation of change that we need to live and work with.
Many teenagers use cell phones for entertainment purposes including porno services and violent games. The influence of this "negative" culture on the development of teenagers is profound because of its harmful effects and false morals. Teenagers spend time and efforts loading and updating their melodies and games wasting their money and money of their perants. If it is possible for parents to control PC usage and limit access to porno sites, they are not able to control all phone calls of their children.
The use of a cell phone for cheating is not common but reported by teachers of high schools and college students. Usually, students use a phone to search the Intenet during a test to find answers. This situation has a very negative effect on a student himself, his mates and test results of other students (Parker, 2006).
In spite of all negative effects of cell phones use by teenagers they have an undoubted advantage: the developement of cell phones changes interretion between people and channels of communication. Today, teenagers can communicate freely with each other, parents can monotor their children and teenagers can find their parents any time they need them. It becomes easier to talk with a person even if he/she is not at home or at office.
Argument Another problem caused by a cell phone use is careless driving. It was found that talking on a phone “young drivers' reaction times slow to that of a 70-year-old” (Cell Phones 'Age', A01), that results in accidents and deaths. According to statistical data “The insurance institute says that 32 16-year-olds died per 100,000 drivers in 2003, four times the fatality rate of the 30-to-59 age group”(Tanner, 2005).This situation can be explained by the fact that teenagers are less experienced drivers and need to pay more attention to the road. Some people say that it is possible to create legal barriers to keep young drivers from using cell phones and force them to use hands free devices, but these will not do because teenagers pay more attention to the conversation than to driving that resulted in lack of control.
To conclude, a cell phones is described and manifested by a new line of gadgets and products that purportedly make everyday living easier than before. Nevertheless, parents and government should take measures protecting teenagers from unpleasant consequences. Parents should explain their children that a cell phone is not a safe thing causing health problems while government should take measures and prohibits advertising campaigns by mobile operators aimed to attract teenage audience.
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Hybrid Cars
The impact of gas emissions on the global warming is evident. Humanity causes severe weather by a number of ways, including pollution. People have always polluted their surroundings, but throughout much of history, pollution was not a major problem. The warming or "Greenhouse effect" we are now experiencing is a result of carbon dioxide we have dumped into the air. It turns clear, odorless air into hazy, smelly air that harms health, kills plants, and damages property. In general, air pollution and global warming results from pouring hundreds of millions of tons of gases and participates into the atmosphere including the major greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane (CH4), the halocarbons (CFCs) and nitrous oxide. Kyoto protocol (1997) introduced strict laws for car manufactures aimed to reduce the impact of gas emission on global worming (Kyoto Protocol, 2005). Car manufactures have been forced to develop new clear technologies to reduce the level of gas emissions dumped into the air.
How they work?
The technological developments do much to control pollution cased by older technology. Various methods of reducing pollution from automobile engines have been developed recently. Examples include new additives to replace tetraethyl lead in gasoline, and devices to remove pollutants from exhaust and make combustion processes more complete. One more alternative sollution is a hybrid car. A hybrid car combines more sources of power: a rechargeable battery and gasoline. Its full name si the gasoline-electric hybrid car, because it is a mixture of a gasoline-powered car and an electric car.The battery is needed to provide extra acceleration power. 'When the car is stopped, hybrid gasoline motors can shut off and run off their electric motor and battery" (Hybrid Cars, 2005). There are two variant of a hybrid car: a parallel hybrid and a series hybrid car. The difference is that a parallel hybrid car consistes of a fuel tank, which supplies gasoline to the engine while in the latter, a generator is turned by the gasoline engine. It can charge the batteries or power an electric motor that drives the transmission (How Hybrid Car Works, 2005). The basic components of a hybrid car include: gasoline engine, fuel tank, electric motor, generator, batteries, and transmission. “Both the engine and the electric motor can turn the transmission at the same time, and the transmission then turns the wheels” (How Hybrid Car Works, 2005).
How they help the Ecosystem and the Environment?
Hybrids innovative technology is an alternative energy solution which help to reduce the risk of global warming. On the one hand, hybrids reduce fuel emissions because the hybrid engine draws on the battery and not gasoline when accelerating. On the other hand, hybrid gasoline motors can shut off when the car is stopped and run off their electricity.
So called "trace gases" make up the remainder of air's composition, but if cars do not dump CO2 into the air there is no threat of “trace gases”. Most air pollution results from combustion processes. Each time a fuel is burned in a combustion process, some type of pollutant is released into the air, and ruin ozone layer, which protects the Earth from radiation. As a result our atmosphere is heated, and climate becomes warmer. This pollutant forms when moisture in the air com¬bines with nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide released by automobiles, by factories, and by power plants that burn coal or oil. The reaction between the moisture and the chemical compounds produces nitric and sulfuric acids. It also reduces the amount of oxygen that water can hold. The major pollutant is fuel oil, which enters oceans mainly from oil tankers and offshore oil wells. This heated water causes such disasters as tornados and hurricanes. If hybrid technology is introduced, the need in fuel oil will decrease and the negative impact on ecosystem will be minimized.
The Future
The problem is that it is very expensive to produce a hybrid car, and since then Honda has ground production down to near zero. So there is a response to the short-term, but it's just under whelming (Honda Says , 2005). Years ago, Time Magazine claimed that a majority of Americans were willing to pay 50 cents more (in today's dollars) for a gallon of gas if it would fight global warming. Today, it is proved that it did not happened (Overview of Vehicle Compatibility, 2005). Roland Hwang a policy analyst and vehicle technology expert said "This shows what we've been saying all along is true", "Auto manufacturers know how to build cars that emit less global warming pollution. The technology exists today. If Honda can do it, so can the Big Three. The only question is when will Detroit put its engineers to work and send its lawyers and lobbyists back home." (Michaels, 2005). These new Toyota SUV hybrids will use a 3.3-liter V6 engine combined with Toyota's hybrid powertrain, and according to reports will put out 270 hp. Fuel economy is expected to average around 28 mpg, with a range in excess of 600 miles (Shaver, 2001). The Toyota hybrids will be available in a front- and all-wheel-drive version. The AWD versions will feature two electric motors: one to power the front wheels and the second to power the rear wheels. Thanks to this system of twin motors there will be no driveshaft connecting the transmission and the rear wheels which will have the effect or reducing weight and enhancing interior leg room and comfort. The Highlander Hybrid is expected to be the first seven-passenger hybrid SUV when it goes on sale in early 2005.
It's impossible to meet Kyoto's mandates, which start in 2008, but to reduce emission level is not an easy task to solve. But in a time it became apparent that the protocol was wrong. People are increasing their purchases of gas-hogs and buying relatively fewer of the new gas-electric hybrids (Michaels, 2005). Nevertheless, bear in mind the facts mentioned above it would be possible to say that the solution is found. If carmakers change their policy to "green car", the level of emission will be reduced greatly. But, this problem has social aspects. Americans used to traditional cars because of their safety and power, etc. It will be difficult to persuade them to buy another models of cars.
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Political Science
Political conflicts and war is a dangerous and tremendous evil which pressures mankind through all periods of history. If we look back we could see that there has not been any century or a decade free of wars and armed conflicts. It is known fact that the lessons from the past have been taken into account by many political leaders to understand the relationships between cause and effect of ideology, in spite this lessons the USA is "still locked in conflicts around the world even though the Cold war is over"
Several corollary ideas gave definition to the emphasis that the USA placed on international organization, law, and disarmament (of other countries). Among them were the need to substitute attitudes that stressed the unity of humankind for those that stressed parochial national loyalties to independent sovereign states, using the power of ideas through education to arouse world public opinion against warfare and the termination of interlocking bilateral alliances and the power balances they sought to achieve.
It is possible to say that the USA sees in the principle of self-determination a chance to redraw the world's political geography accordingly to political priorities of countries, under the conviction that a world so arranged would be a more peaceful world. Related to this was the call for democratic domestic institutions. Making the world safe for democracy they would also make it secure and free from war. To some extent, this approach is based on idealistic interpretation of political process accepted by the USA from the beginning of XX century. For instance, Woodrow Wilson speech promulgated before Congress in 1918 proposed the creation of the League of Nations and, with it, the pursuit of other idealists' aims, expressed the sentiments of the idealist worldview and program perhaps better than did any other statement. According to Gaddis: “these tend to work when the members of the coalition voluntarily align their own interests with those of its leader. But that requires a leader who can not only lead but listen, who can not only persuade but compromise” (Gaddis, n.d.)
To explain why the USA is still locked in conflicts, it is possible to find historical parallels with WWI and WWII epochs. The USA new ideology (War on Terror) can be compared with extreme ideologies dominated during this period of time. The large-scale death and destruction exacted by World War 1 destroyed the security that had made current history a comfortable approach to international politics. That catastrophic global war, begun in 1914, was a painful learning experience that stimulated the search for knowledge that could address contemporary policy prob¬lems—notably war (Evera 2002).
The drive for world conquest that led to World War II provoked strong criticism of the idealist paradigm. Critics blamed the outbreak of war on what they believed to be the idealists' naive legalistic and moralistic assumptions about progress through human aspiration and the possibility of peace. They alleged that idealists neglects totalitarian ideology of other countries. According to Morgenthau “What is needed [for permanent peace] is a radical transformation of the existing international society of sovereign nations into a supranational community of individuals. (480 cited Whelan 1999).
Taking into account political history Morgenthau explains that ” All political phenomena can be reduced to one of three basic types: keeping power, increasing power, and demonstrating power. (40) Internationally, these patterns are transformed into policies: status quo (keeping power); imperialism (increasing power); and prestige (demonstrating power). (41 cited Whelan 1999). Applied to the present political situation in the USA, this approach help to explain why the USA is locked in conflicts. The USA government tries to keep global dominance (economic and political) using the increasing power of the country. In some cases (Iraq conflict), to corroborate this status (prestige), the USA demonstrates political and military power. In this situation, the War on Terror becomes an extreme ideology widely criticized by political scientists.
Later, with the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazis in Germany, national socialism (or fascism) also challenged conventional European thinking about international politics. Nazism, the German variant of na¬tional socialism, was particularly provocative. Not only did Nazism glorify the role of the state (as opposed to that of the individual) in political life, it also advanced a political philosophy that rationalized war as an instrument of national policy.
Marxist-Leninist thought and communism is another vivid example of the extreme ideology.
“Instead of confronting each other openly and directly, the United States and the Soviet Union have chosen to oppose and compete with each other surreptitiously through the intermediary of third parties” (Morgenthau, 1967). These examples show the cause and result of extreme ideology followed by the USA now.
The organization of violence and coercive relations constitutes power which interpenetrates with other domains and directly affects life and death chances in and across communities. Concentrated physical force can function on behalf of a community, acting for its preservation or defence, or against it, eroding security and undermining pre-established regulatory mechanisms. In his book Waltz critiques Niebuhr and Morgenthau writing that “For pessimists, peace is at once a goal and a utopian dream, while optimists take seriously the proposition to reform the individual” (Waltz, 1954, p.41). Internal ethnic war has become today's main challenge for international relations and humanitarian policy.
On the other hand, the situation when the USA is locked in conflicts, is caused by national ideology of the country. As the classic nation-state it is focused on ultimate authority and the basis for governing institutions. It is the arena for public policy-making and the basis of cultural and political identity. “Mr. Gaddis faults the president for not gathering sufficient international support before the invasion of Iraq and underestimating the challenges of postwar Iraq” (Sammon, 2004).
Stephen Van Evera (2002) explains that another problem is that the problem is that the violence of conflicts is not carried out at a distance, against anonymous and invisible victims, but in immediate physical confrontation with friends and neighbours. The USA takes efforts to reduce casualties, but it results in arms conflicts. This, of course, is one of the most bewildering and disturbing aspects of today's wars. On the other hand, structure causes the difference between “them” and “us.” In any case, the nature of the challenge to political equality and to the democratic process, however, goes beyond the immediate impact of economic inequalities. For the very capacity of governments to act in ways that individuals and groups may desire is constrained. Waltz explains that “states are unitary actors who, at minimum, seek their preservation and, at maximum, drive for universal domination. States use (a) internal efforts (increase in capability, military strength, clever strategies) or (b) external efforts (strengthen own alliance or weaken opposing one) to achieve their aims” (Waltz, 1979). In any case, this policy, supported by extreme ideology, is resulted in multipolarity and conflicts.
The USA dominance has both altered the architecture of the Western European and global political order, creating new spaces above and below the nation-state. Their combined effects have created new forms of politics and a complex of three-level interac¬tions. Policy-making continues to be centred primarily on the state, but national governments increasingly share decision-making.
The constraints on democratic governments and state institutions - constraints imposed by the requirements of private accumula¬tion — systematically limit policy options. To remain in power in a liberal democratic regime, governments must take action to secure the profitability and prosperity of the private sector, since they are dependent upon the process of capital accumulation which they have for their own sake to maintain. A government's policies must follow a political agenda that is at least favourable to, that is, biased towards, the interests of private enterprise and corporate power if its own financial basis and legitimacy are to be protected in the long run.
A system of representation and legitimisation of decisions and a forum within which economic competitiveness and social integration could be reconciled. These processes are increasingly divorced as economic change escapes the control of states; policy-making retreats into complex networks which do not correspond to formal institutions; and new and rediscovered forms of identity emerge at the subnational and even the supranational level.
Unfortunately, there is the successful manipulation of historic grievances and present-day fears created the image of a collective enemy, one that removed the restraints on political differences being settled by violent means. In this case, ensure that there is no external threat for the country, and even if it takes place there is a strong “protection sheet” to prevent any invasion. Whelan explains that “not all foreign policies have always followed so rational, objective, and unemotional a course” (Whelan 1999). The USA, followed by the desire to dominate, is locked in conflicts. Speaking about a common sense we speak about policy of countries involved in a conflict. In this case, the common sense is coincides with the strategy to win, on the one hand, and with the aim to defend the nation, on the other. The common sense cannot be explained through a private (personal) interest of people.
To conclude, the extreme ideology, followed by the USA government, concerns the questions of national safety, and usually accepted and accomplished not on the basis of choice, but on the bases of force connected with the bureaucratic system. Nevertheless, this policy leads to wars, and resulted in conflicts. It shows that the political leaders should look to the past evidence and apply it to the present day political situation foreseeing outcomes of their actions.
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Philosophy: John Lock
(1) Locke improved Cartesian realism supposing that his empirical method allows him to explain the meaning of hidden essences in our guesses. Locke explained that humans’ secondary ideas do not allow to understand what cause them, while primary ideas are "qualitatively identical with their archetypes, thus affording us a conceptual bridgehead in reality itself". (2) Locke distinguished primary and secondary qualities stated that each object has its primary qualities, and other qualities which produced by power in the object itself are secondary. This power in the object affects human’s sensors. Secondary qualities are subjective while primarily are objective qualities. Primary qualities of the object is its intrinsic feature while secondary qualities produce the ideas in our sensation
(3) Complex are based on the active power of human’s mind to compare and contrast, compound and abstract the knowledge. During this processes, Locke explained, human mind produces new complex ideas from the separate parts provided by our experience. Locke distinguished three levels: simple and mixed modes, relations and substances. Under modes he meant ideas that join elementary elements to create a new whole. Under substances Locke understood ideas of a particular object that exist on their own. These ideas are based on thir secondary qualities and powers. Relations mean ideas that connected the other ideas with each other. Simple ideas are the core of knowledge. Based on these ideas complex ideas are built. (4) The Lock’s theory was deductive, because it is possible to give exact indication of mathematical terms and deductive demonstrations of mathematical truths. Locke supposed that even morality is subdued to deductive demonstration. (5) Further Lock’s theory was developed by Berkeley and Hume. Hume supposed that people have “no ideas of bodies without the secondary quolities” (Of the Modern Philosophy, 2005). Berkeley explained that the limitation of this theory is that people have no ideas of solidity. He supposed that the ideas of notion, body, extention, and soplidity depends upon each other. Hume rejected the fact that people have sensory impressions of solidity that differs from sensory impressions of secondary qualities.
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The future of the earth lies in our hands, and not only in our hands but in our hearts, our minds, and in the ability that each of us has to contribute to the vast network of light and of consciousness of which we form a part.